Guidance Services

GUIDANCE SERVICES IN ELEMENTARY, SECONDARY & TRETIARY LEVELThe school is expected to provide more than just teaching and instruction. A school programme includes all those activities other than instructional which are carried out to render assistance to pupils in their educational, vocational, personal development and adjustment.GUIDANCE SERVICES IN ELEMENTARYThe elementary school counsellor serves the needs of all elementary students, to help them develop, academically, socially and emotionally. The school counsellor’s role is constantly changing, reflecting the needs of the many people in our school community; children, parents, teachers, and administrators. A variety of services are provided: Guidance LessonsThe elementary guidance curriculum is child-centred and developmental – considers the characteristics and needs of each age and grade level. The curriculum encourages students to:– develop positive self-image – become more aware of the relationships between themselves and others – recognize their own needs and goals Individual Counselling ServicesElementary school counsellors meet individually with students to provide support for school-related issues. The counselling strategies vary with each student’s needs and are provided on a short-term basis as determined by the school counsellor. Students can refer themselves to the counsellor or can be referred by parents, teachers, or other school staff. Group Counselling ServicesElementary school counsellors meet with small groups of students on various topics. Topics are determined by the children’s needs and interests.ConsultationSchool counsellors, parents, and teachers work together to support children. Elementary school counsellors work with parents: – to exchange and gather information – to provide recommendations; and – to discuss parenting concernsElementary school counsellors work with teachers, administrators, and other staff: †“ to provide information, materials and referral assistance – to address student needs, especially within the Instructional Support Team (IST); and – to promote a positive learning environment.Is it time to speak with the counsellor?Parents should feel free to call the counsellor when they notice certain signs of potential problem in their child: – You see a dramatic change in your child’s behaviour. A happy child becomes withdrawn. A friendly child wants to be alone. – There’s been a change in your family. A new marriage, a severe illness, a divorce or a new baby can all effect school work. -Your child begins acting out and fails to respond to your usual methods of discipline. The behaviour that you see at home may also be occurring at school.GUIDANCE SERVICES IN SECONDARYThe Guidance Department is committed to helping students successfully navigate through high school academically, socially, and personally. This begins with the guidance counsellors visiting the middle schools to help 8th grade students make informed decisions about course selection and getting involved in school activities at the high school. This is done in conjunction with an eighth grade parent night to introduce parents to the high school. ONCE STUDENTS HAVE TRANSITIONED IN AS FRESHMEN, meet the ninth graders in groups to stress the importance of being an active participant in their high school education. It is important for students to understand early on that the decisions they make as freshmen can impact their future plans.IN THE SOPHOMORE YEAR, administer the PLAN assessment to all 10th graders and then schedule individual meetings with the students and parents to begin the discussion and planning for what comes after high school. We often refer to this meeting as â€Å"The Kick-off† to the college planning process. BY JUNIOR YEAR, students should be in full gear with their post secondary planning and help jump start this by providin g students with the tools to get started in group sessions. THE COMPREHENSIVE GUIDANCE PLAN CULMINATES IN THE SENIOR YEAR , with individual meetings with seniors and  their parents to help guide them through the post-secondary and college application process. -Donna Lyons, Director of GuidanceTHE GOALS OF THE SCHOOL COUNSELING PROGRAM ARE:†¢To help students in developing the ability to make decisions regarding personal, social, and educational matters. †¢To assist parent/guardian(s) in developing skills needed to support the student’s post-secondary enrolment and career exploration processes. †¢To support personalized assessment of the educational and career options available to each student. †¢To make appropriate referrals concerning community and school resources. †¢To assist students, parents, and others involved in addressing concerns and issues associated with the classroom and school environment. †¢To assist in the implementation of progr am accommodations granted as part of approved special education Individual Education Plans (IEP) or regular education 504 plans.Test PreparationThe Guidance Services Department at most schools offers students test preparation materials to help the students prepare for the various standardized tests they are exposed to during their middle school and high school careers.Program PlanningProgram planning is another key service offered by guidance departments. Program planning involves helping the student decide what classes he wants to take during his middle school and high school career. Program planning not only helps the student decide what electives to take and what classes are best for his academic abilities, it ensures that the classes the student is taking fulfil the high school's graduation requirements.Individual/Group CounsellingIndividual counselling and group counselling comprise counselling sessions held between a guidance counsellor and a student or group of students. Thes e sessions seek to address psychological, social and academic issues that can range from problems with school work, to bullying, to health concerns like depression. During these types of sessions, the parents of the student may be contacted and the student may be referred to an outside agency if the  problem warrants such action.College/Career PlanningThis service seeks to help students decide what they want to do after they are finished with their high school career. If the student wants to attend college after high school, the school selection and application process can be overseen or aided by the guidance counsellor. If the student wishes to enter the workforce immediately after high school, the guidance counsellor can aid the student in finding work, resume building, interview etiquette and many other employment-seeking skills.Guidance and Counselling has been defined as a profession involving an â€Å"integrated approach to the development of a well-functioning individual p rimarily by helping him /her to utilize his/her potentials to the fullest and plan his/her present and future in accordance with his/her abilities, interests and needs.†(RA 9258, Rule 1, Section 3) The PSHS-CARC Guidance Program is based on the needs of the starting campus and its budgetary limitations.Sponsored Link2014 Scholarships Scholarships for Students Undergraduate, Masters, PhD etc scholarship-positions.comGUIDANCE SERVICES IN TERTIARYInformation This refers to the intentional and purposive delivery of information to students; the primary purpose is to enable students to use said information to guide their choices and actions inside and outside of the University. Information varies and may be categorized as institutional, educational, occupational, and personal. Modes of delivery include dissemination through bulletin board, postings, flyers, brochures, orientations, meetings, and consultations.Individual InventoryThis refers to the process of accumulating and analyzi ng information about students on an individual basis through the use of an inventory form and through routine interview. Data solicited may include demographic information, academic records, psychological assessment data, and personal needs and problems. Data may be used to check for students who may need  counselling or specialized guidance services, and to inform the development and enhancement of student services.TestingConsistent with the objective of being able to assess relevant educational and psychological data from students, a testing program is designed and implemented. The testing program aims to help the students gain understanding of their needs and personality, to realize their potentials, to identify their strengths and weaknesses, and to know the implications of these. The main task of this service is the administration, scoring, and interpretation of standardized psychological tests of personality, interest, needs, aptitude, and intelligence, as well as the develo pment and use of affective scales that can be used to come up with a more complete picture of a student's traits or characteristics.CounsellingThis refers to the purposive interaction between student and counsellor, individually or in groups where the needs, problems, or difficulties of the student are shared, examined, and processed with the end goal of empowering the student to effectively manage his concerns. Areas of concern can be academic, personal, or social in nature and may focus on one's personality, emotion, attitude, values, or actual behaviour, Students can avail of counselling voluntarily (walk-in) or by referral from faculty, counsellors, parents, and other students.Personality Education Program This is a curriculum-based psycho-educational program designed to facilitate the total personality development, psychological wellness, and life adjustment of students.Career DevelopmentThis refers to the set of services specifically designed to assist students in their career planning and choices. These services can be categorized as career education (i.e. seminar on writing an effective resume); career information (i.e. job postings); and career placement (i.e. job fair).Special Guidance ServicesDevelopmental Learning SessionsThis refers to seminars or workshops facilitated by counsellors or invited resource persons on topics not covered by the information service and personality education classes. The aim of such program is to facilitate the learning experience of students on a wide variety of topics that could help them in their adjustment in school and life in general.Psychotherapeutic Intervention ProgramThis refers to programs specifically planned, designed, and implemented to meet the need of a particular group of students (i.e. athletes, single-mothers). The aim of such program is to promote psychological wellness and prevent future incidents of maladjustments or to remedy an already existing case of maladjustments among students belonging to sp ecial target groups.Research and EvaluationResearch is a guidance function where the counsellors develop and implement research plans that would generate empirical data about students and student’s life that could be used to inform policy and decision-making in the University, especially on matters relevant to student welfare and development, and to inform the direction and suitability of the various guidance services.Evaluation is a guidance function where the counsellors develop and implement assessment and evaluation plans that would provide soft and hard data on the quality, results, and impact of the various student services and programs. Evaluation data can be used as basis for enhancement of existing programs and development of new programs. Referral and ConsultationCounselling or clinical cases deemed beyond the level of expertise or resources of the faculty counsellors are referred to others to ascertain that students in such cases would be able to benefit from the b est available intervention.Follow-upThis refers to the formal and systematic monitoring of the individual progress of current students who have undergone academic advising, counselling, referral, placement, or any special intervention program. Returning students and those who are in academic probation are also monitored whenever needed. http://www.pnu.edu.ph/page/osass_guidance.php

Cultural Differences in the Perception of Geometric Illusions

Cultural Differences In Geometrical Perceptions The study chosen is called Cultural Differences in the Perception of Geometric Illusions. The research specifically focused on the psychological processes of depth perception and visual perspective. The first example is the Muller-Lyer illusion which is an optical illusion consisting of stylized arrows in which viewers tend to perceive one as longer than the other.The second example used is the Sanders Parallelogram in which a diagonal line bisecting the larger, left-hand parallelogram appears to be slightly longer than the diagonal line bisecting the smaller, right-hand parallelogram, but it is in fact the same length. The last example used in the stimulus is the horizontal-vertical illusion, in which observers have the tendency to perceive the vertical as longer than a horizontal line of the same length when the lines are perpendicular.All of these relate to how a subject is able to understand the spatial qualities. The researchers hy pothesize that the cultural differences between the people tested affect their perception of the lines. The researchers dispersed the tests to 14 non-European countries including those in Africa, Philippines, and America. All in all this amounted to 1,878 samples. The differences in these cultures can change from those of habitat, where some may be living in a dense, urban environment to those who live in rural land.Language may also affect how one may perceive their surroundings, another factor that differs between the test samples is the school of thought between different cultures. The result of the research showed that on both the Muller-Lyer and Sanders Parallelograms the European and American samples made significantly more illusion-produced responses than did the non-European samples. On the two horizontal-vertical illusions, the European and American samples had relatively low scores, with many of the non-Western samples scoring significantly higher.All samples appeared to b e minimally susceptible to the perspective drawing. These findings point to cross-cultural differences that perhaps can be attributed to ecological and cultural factors in the environment. For example, in the study they provide an explanation for the factor of spatial perception, they believe that if one were to live in a highly urbanized community, in which there is a high prevalence of rectangles, then the subjects are more inclined to interpret two dimensional cute and obtuse angles as representative of rectangles in three dimension drawings. This can also be the opposite, if one were to grow up in the countryside where they are exposed to large horizontal vistas, then their perceptions would change. Works Cited: Segall, Marshall, Donald T. Campbell, Melville J. Herskovits. â€Å"Cultural Differences in the Perception of Geometric Illusions. † Science, New Series, Vol. 139, No. 3556 (Feb. 22, 1963), pp. 769-771

QVC Vision Statement

External forces of competition affect all companies and the television shopping industry is no different. There are many forces than can be grouped into a few categories: economic, socio-cultural, technological, and political-legal. These forces have had a major impact on the television shopping industry. QVC’s ability to understand their environment and adapt have helped them achieve success. Under economic forces, competition is a major component. The barrier for entry is low, so there is always the threat of new businesses.Substitute products also directly compete with QVC’s products and customer dollars. Other potent forces are changes in the supply chain. QVC must constantly be on the lookout for new products, while maintaining good relations and contracts with existing suppliers. The rate of growth of the economy will affect consumer spending which directly relates to QVC’s goods sold. Inflation is always relevant and can cut into a company’s bottom line. Socio-cultural forces are extremely important to QVC and the television shopping industry.Consumer preference and trends are vital to a company trying to meet the needs of its customers. QVC has adapted to recent trends by promoting its cosmetics, apparel, food, and toys heavily. QVC also has to consider what will attract customers to their channel. They incorporated the reality T. V. craze into their programming and it helped attract viewers and customers. QVC’s in-show appearance of designers has capitalized on designer’s current popularity.Other forces like growing health consciousness, and changing household composition, will be important factors for QVC as they try to understand their customers and improve their shopping experience. Technological forces are important to the television shopping industry for many reasons. In the internal environment, new technology can help improve infrastructure, reduce costs, and improve efficiency. The consumer’s con venience of purchase is crucial to people who shop off of their couches. Harnessing new technology will also help QVC stay in touch with the customer.With the evolution of mobile browsing, social media, and other media outlets, these forces represent a large opportunity to communicate with customers. Technological forces are also important to the shopping industry because firms will look to stay up-to-date on the latest products. If QVC can identify the next iPod-like product then they will reap the benefits of a massive consumer response. Finally, political-legal forces represent laws and regulations to the television shopping industry.There will always be laws and regulations in place that affect the manner in which a company does business. From QVC’s standpoint, they might need to follow certain protocol when describing payment options, or product specifications. Industry regulations are generally in position to protect the customer, which aligns well with QVC’s no hidden fees policy. QVC’s honesty with their customers will bolster their reputation and help them operate well within the guidelines set by the government.

Protestant Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Protestant - Assignment Example sts also questioned the older understanding and meanings of biblical scriptures, and made attempts to bring forth improved explanations of the prevailing biblical words. The followers of the liberal mainline Protestant Christianity believe in the existence of a Deity i.e. Trinity that includes the Father, the Holy Spirit and the Son. They believe that symbolically speaking, Jesus Christ is a manifestation or incarnation of the God. God is the creator of universe and evidence that arises as a result of scientific experimentation supports this notion. They also believe that death is not the end; evil will be punished while good acts will be rewarded in the afterlife (Albanese 106). The older belief regarding inheritance of ‘original sin’ (Adam & Eve) is not readily accepted by many. Instead of following a religious concept regarding suffering of the humanity, the liberal Protestants are more inclined towards following the humanistic approach which aligns closely with the modern notion of helping the needy in times of need. Overall, the liberal approach seeks to find rational answers to religious questions and in doing so, centers the deci sions on knowledge that is already acquired by human beings by scientific

Litirature review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Litirature review - Essay Example Strong leadership is a very important ingredient in the success of an organization. A change in the leadership of an organization might result in changes in the organization structure, strategies, policies and the way the organization does it business. Moreover, with the movement of a leader from the organization, the close subordinates also move with the outgoing leader which might result in substantial change in the management of an organization. At the same time, it is important that the employees of the organization must relate to the new leadership. It is important that whenever there is a need to change the leadership of organization, suitable candidates are identified as soon as possible. For this, it is important to identify and nurture young talent in the organization. The transition to a new leader shall be smooth so that the employees do not feel uncomfortable under the changed leadership. Any organization will, for surely have change in its leadership and because of the s ignificant changes undergoing during this period, it is important that the transition is managed in the best possible way. Hence it is important that the area of leadership transition and succession planning is carefully reviewed. This paper will analyze the already existing literature in the area of succession planning, its important and identify the best ways to manage leadership transition. ... Often the area of succession planning is concerned with the succession of leaders. Types of succession planning The process of succession planning needs a thorough understanding of the strategy of the organization. There have been various models of performing succession planning such as ‘relay succession’, ‘horse- race successions’ and ad-hoc succession. While in relay succession, the leaving person identifies an individual, and then grooms the person, horse-race successions are more competitive in nature and the Board decides the successor amongst many candidates. An ad-hoc succession involves selecting the best possible candidate who is present at that particular point of time. In case, firms are not able to identify a potential successor, boards often appoint an interim leader who occupies that position until a permanent person is hired for the position. Of all the ways, relay succession is the most common type of succession planning undertaken by compani es (Brickley et al., 1997). Relation between firm performance and succession planning Previous research has suggested that the performance of an organization is significantly impacted by the succession process adopted. More disruptive succession processes impact the performance of the firms negatively (Zhang and Rajagopalan, 2004). At the same time, the performance after a change in leadership is also impacted by actions of the successor and the internal and external situation of the change (Rowe et al., 2005). The success of a succession planning exercise depends on various factors such as involvement of the outgoing leader, sincerity of the performance review of all the candidates, accurate prediction of the talent need that might arise, and the consistency of

Discuss the various ways in which modern investors manage the risk in Essay

Discuss the various ways in which modern investors manage the risk in their portfolios - Essay Example Many of the participants in risk trading take particular points of view, and suffer losses when their points of view are not realized. It may also be that the risks in some of the more complex positions currently being taken are not always well understood by the institutions arranging the deals. In addition, risk control systems in some institutions are so weak that management cannot determine when institutional survival is being jeopardized. There are also aggregate problems, because the failure of one institution can bring about failure of others. Finally, there are presently few sources of aggregate statistics that would permit informed observers to assess exactly what the potential dangers in individual institutions’ positions might be. On the positive side, the percentage of capital at risk in derivatives trading has been estimated at some 10 percent of the total capital of the world’s banks. In addition, individual companies have sustained large losses from derivatives trading without creating serious externalities. For example, when Barings Bank failed in 1995, many of the other banks trading with Barings had become aware of the unusual risks it was taking and had reduced their positions with Barings (J. Rosenhead, J. Mingers, 2001). Basically, the perception of risk is the result of an investors thought processes. Let us say that the investor speculates that a new factory will be able to produce V volume of goods that can be sold for P price. The question is: Where do V and P come from? Some say that V and P spring from the imagination while others maintain that V and P are a result of a deliberate cognitive process of logic and dispassionate judgment. Perhaps these, and other conjectures concerning the thought process of the human mind, are all part of a businessmans assessments of the projected values of price and volume. These values, when properly manipulated with costs,

Analysis of Dreams by Langston Hughes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analysis of Dreams by Langston Hughes - Essay Example Analysis of â€Å"Dreams† by Langston Hughes On closer analysis, the poem reveals depths of meaning which make it rich and particularly appealing to the reader. Langston Hughes skilfully uses structure, theme, vivid imagery and literary devices to enhance the effect of â€Å"Dreams.† The structure of the poem heightens the poem’s appeal. It consists of just a couple of complete sentences which are arranged in two short stanzas. Each stanza is in the form of four lines which are brief and to the point. This enables the reader to focus on the theme without any distraction. The focus remains completely on the importance of holding on to dreams. The poet uses simple vocabulary and the meaning of the poem is easy to grasp. There are no ambiguous words which puzzle the reader. This makes the tone of the poem very conversational. The everyday language generates an intimate tone and makes the reader particularly receptive to the poet’s voice. The reader feels that the poet is addressing him directly and immediately empathizes with the poet. The reader develops a sense of comradeship with the poet. The rhyming scheme is another aspect of the poem’s structure which holds the reader’s attention. The second and fourth lines of the two stanzas rhyme: â€Å"die† and â€Å"fly;† â€Å"go† and â€Å"snow.† The rhyme adds to the beauty of the poem’s sound and gives it a lyrical quality. The first and fourth lines are unrhymed and make an effective contrast which heightens the rhyme of the other lines. The absence of punctuation is another characteristic of the structure which heightens the effect of the poem. This makes the structure very stark and compelling. Each line flows into the next and contributes to the easy reading of the poem. The poem’s structure demonstrates strong repetition. There is repetition in structure and repetition in words. The two stanzas follow the same pattern. The structure of the first stanza is repeated in the second stanza: both stanzas begin with the poet’s urging to hold on to dreams and both go on to give the details of what would happen if this is not done. By repeating the words â€Å"Hold fast to dreams,† (Hughes, 1) in the second stanza, the poet emphasizes the importance of not letting go of one’s dreams and gives his warning an air of urgency. Again, the two stanzas show a repetition of structure in the lines â€Å"Life is a broken-winged bird† (3) and â€Å"Life is a barren field† (7). Here, the repetition is used for emphasis and the adverse consequences of losing one’s dreams is clearly stated. The theme of the poem is something which every reader can identify with. Dreams are a part of every individual’s life. The vast majority of humanity starts out with many goals and aspirations. As life goes on, obstacles and sorrows are met and many of these dreams remain mere fantasy or die. They cannot be translated into reality. There soon co mes a time when hopelessness envelops the soul. There is a tendency to give up on dreams and accept that they are beyond reach. The poet speaks to the many readers whose dreams are yet to be realized. By urging them to â€Å"Hold fast to dreams,† the poet implies that dreams can easily slip away unless they are tightly held on to. It is comforting to know that everyone finds it difficult to keep a grip on their dreams. The vivid imagery of the poem captures the imagination of the reader. The poem makes the reader actually visualize the tragic consequences of letting go of

Scripture Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Scripture - Assignment Example The section ends with a detailed development of three topics from the Dei Verbum. How did the Church settle on the 27 books of the New Testament? The early Church was prompted to come up with the 27 books of the New Testament by a number of factors. These factors were of, religious, socio-political, or cultural nature. A combination of these factors compelled the early Church leaders, as it were, to come up with the list of authentic and authoritative books in the New Testament. These factors are: Gnosticism: This was a sect of heretical believers who posed a great challenge to the early Christians on the teachings of the church. The central view of the Gnostic scholars was that, the elect souls are divine sparks temporarily imprisoned in the physical bodies as a result of precosmic catastrophe, and as such, these souls have a natural knowledge (gnosis) of their origin and destiny, and this natural knowledge will lead them to salvation. As it can be deduced from this position, for th e Gnostics, there was absolutely no need of an authoritative body of knowledge or traditions that would serve as a condition for salvation. Some of the Gnostic scholars were, Basilides, Carpocrates, and Valentinus and Marcion. The early Christians, therefore, had to come up with an authoritative body of knowledge that contained the teachings of their founder, JesusChrist, and the apostles, that would serve as a guide for their followers and that would enlighten the Christians against the heresies and the fallacies of the Gnostics. Montanism was another heretical religious sect that prompted the formation of the New Testament in the early centuries of Christianity. This Christian movement was a charismatic movement that claimed to be a religion of the Holy Spirit, and it was marked by ecstatic outbursts. This sect claimed that this kind of ecstatic outbursts was the only true form of Christianity. To counter this heretical movement and its teachings, the early church came had to come up with correct teachings of the Church which would act as a guide for its adherents. This led to the formation of the 27 books in the New Testament. Apart from the heretical teachings that precipitated the need for the formulation of the authoritative teachings of the Church, another phenomenon in form of persecution of Christians, further, necessitated the need for the articulation of the authoritative teachings of the Church based on the teachings of Jesus Christ and the apostles. When the imperial police started persecuting the Christians and demanding from the the teachings of Christianity, it became necessary for the Christians of the early Church to determine the correct teachings of Christianity, from a myriad of other teachings that claimed to be the true teachings of Jesus Christ and the apostles. This circumstance, therefore, led to the formation of the 27 books of the New Testament that constitute the authoritative teachings of the Church. Settling on the 27 books in th e New Testament Having been influenced by the above factors, the early Church set out to assemble the Christian books that contained the authentic teachings of Christianity. And to distinguish between the authentic and the inauthentic Christian books, the Church employed four guidelines (How the New Testament Canon was Formed, online). These guidelines

Ackermann's Function Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Ackermann's Function - Research Paper Example After Ackermann made a publication of his particular function (having only three non-integer functions) a lot of efforts have been done by other authors in the process of modifying the function to apply to various situations, so that at present, this particular function can apply effectively to the numerous variants that comprise the very original function. One of the common versions of the Ackermann’s function is the Ackermann-Peter function, which is a two-argument, is often defined using the non-negative integers m and n as shown (Hazewinkel 2001). From the function below, one can easily deduce that the values are growing and expanding rapidly, even for the tiny inputs (Monin 2003). For instance, take A (4,2), and one can easily see that it is an integer comprising of about 19, 729 decimal digits. Inasmuch as this function has been used widely with success, it has been termed as quite ineffective especially when it comes to computing complex numbers, making the process very slow. The complexity associated with this function often grows quite fast, especially when it comes to its memory and run-time. For this reason, it is often the best and widely used in the process of teaching learners some of the complex types of various recursions. Additionally, it is also used as a test case especially when it comes to compiler development used in optimizing recursions. The numbers used in the illustration for the issue of A (4, n) seem to be quite large, such that one can describe the Ackermann’s function as being extremely slow especially when it comes to computing very large numbers (Sundblad 2003). Inasmuch as the numbers tend to grow very quickly, this function is often concerned with making recursions and subtractions. Following this realization, one can therefore devise some other shortcuts that can bring about another function deemed efficient and effective as shown. The sequence of numbers

Greater London Authority - Analysis of environmental policy Assignment

Greater London Authority - Analysis of environmental policy - Assignment Example In developed countries the potentials for establishing successful Environmental Policies are usually high, taking into consideration the technology and the funds required for supporting these initiatives. However, failures when developing or implementing these policies cannot be eliminated. This fact has been verified in the case of GLA’s Environmental Policy. The particular policy had to faced delays and failures even if it has been continuously supported by the Mayor of London. The reasons of these failures are presented below using Gap Analysis. A survey is also employed for showing the Policy’s strengths and weaknesses. It is proved that the success of the Policy in the long term would be depended on the ability of its planners to make appropriate changes, so that the terms of the Policy are aligned with the standards of the ISO 14001. 1. Introduction The identification of effective policies for managing environmental issues can be characterized as one of the most i mportant challenges that governors and authorities worldwide have to face. In practice, it has been proved that the success of environmental policies can be delayed due to a series of factors that cannot be predicted in advance. Still, the use of ISO standards when developing and implementing environmental policies can minimize the risk for unexpected failures. Greater London Authority has established an Environmental Policy in order to address a series of environmental issues related to the greater London area. The Mayor of London has supported this initiative in all its aspects. However, the effectiveness of the Policy seems to be kept at average levels, as indicated in a survey conducted for this issue. The various aspects of this Policy are evaluated using relevant literature. A gap analysis has been also conducted for identifying the potential weaknesses of the Policy, so that appropriate recommendations for its improvement to be made. 2. GLA and the Mayor Office in London â₠¬â€œ environmental policy 2.1 Responsibilities of the GLA and the Mayor The Greater London Authority (GLA) has been established in order to address a series of critical issues related to the greater London area. The authority was introduced through the GLA Act 1999 (GLA About us 2012). The GLA Act 2007 enhanced the authority of GLA so that the needs of people in London in regard to ‘housing, environment, health and culture’ (GLA About us 2012) are fully covered. The activities of GLA mostly focus on the development of the following areas: ‘society, economy and environment’ (GLA About us 2012). For achieving the above target GLA promotes a series of values, such as ‘integrity, fairness and accountability’ (GLA About us 2012). Particular importance is also given to leadership, as a factor that can highly influence the performance of GLA in all areas presented above. The term leadership in regard to GLA is related to the organization’s Corp orate Management Team (GLA About us, Corporate Management Team 2012). The responsibilities of Mayor are mainly related to the following are

Project Strategy and the Leadership Culture for a large construction Assignment

Project Strategy and the Leadership Culture for a large construction project - Assignment Example When developing a strategy for procurement, it is essential to consider all the factors that are vital to the project such as the project objectives, resources that are available, the total budget and the project duration. The assessment of these factors will ensure that the team has a tailor made procurement plan that contributes towards the project’s objectives. Before any purchase is made, the procuring officer must be able to answer the question as to why that item is being purchased, and if it is the most cost-effective option. All options must be considered, and, since there are some items that can be prepared on site, it is important to consider all available options. An example is concrete. Some companies sell concrete that is ready for use and is delivered to the site in trucks. However, the project managers can decide to buy cement separately and mix it at the site for use (Ward, 2009). All these options have to be considered so that the supervisors find one that is not only cost effective but also saves on labor cost, time and use of mechanical equipment. Sustainability is also a factor that determines the duration for which we keep up with certain purchases. Considering the budget allocated, we should be able to determine whether our procurement decision can be supported in the long run. An important factor in the procurement process is finding suppliers. Suppliers are weighed based on various standards such as reliability and the cost. The procurement process should be done in a cost-effective manner that saves on the estimated figures. This can be done by identifying suppliers who are inexpensive. However, this is not the only measure of a good supplier.Reliability is equally important when it comes to choosing a supplier of choice. A good supplier must be able to supply high quality products within the required time and at an affordable cost; it does not have to be the cheapest option. It is acceptable to pay slightly more

Poverty in India Essay Example for Free

Poverty in India Essay Poverty is the deprivation of food, shelter, money and clothing that occurs when people cannot satisfy their basic needs. Poverty can be understood simply as a lack of money, or more broadly in terms of barriers to everyday life. It refers to a situation where a person is unable meet the basic necessities of life. Absolute poverty or destitution refers to the state of severe deprivation of basic human needs, which commonly includes food, water, sanitation, clothing, shelter, health care, education and information. The amount of income a person or family needs to purchase an absolute amount of the basic necessities of life. These basic necessities are identified in terms of calories of food, BTUs of energy, square feet of living space, etc. The problem with the absolute poverty level is that there really are no absolutes when in comes to consuming goods. Relative poverty views poverty as socially defined and dependent on social context, hence relative poverty is a measure of income inequality. Usually, relative poverty is measured as the percentage of population with income less than some fixed proportion of median income. There are several other different income inequality metrics, for example the Gini coefficient or the Theil Index. Relative poverty measures are used as official poverty rates in several developed countries. As such these poverty statistics measure inequality rather than material deprivation or hardship. The measurements are usually based on a persons yearly income and frequently take no account of total wealth. Definitions United Nations: Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate effectively in society. It means not having enough to food and clothing a family, not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living in marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or sanitation. World Bank: Poverty is pronounced deprivation in well-being, and comprises many dimensions. It includes low incomes and the inability to acquire the basic goods and services necessary for survival with dignity. Poverty also encompasses low  levels of health and education, poor access to clean water and sanitation, inadequate physical security, lack of voice, and insufficient capacity and opportunity to better one’s life. Copenhagen Declaration: Absolute poverty is a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to social services. The term absolute poverty is sometimes synonymously referred to as extreme poverty. World Health Organisation: Poverty is associated with the undermining of a range of key human attributes, including health. The poor are exposed to greater personal and environmental health risks, are less well nourished, have less information and are less able to access health care; they thus have a higher risk of illness and disability. Conversely, illness can reduce household savings, lower learning ability, reduce productivity, and lead to a diminished quality of life, thereby perpetuating or even increasing poverty. Poverty line is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a given country. In practice, like the definition of poverty, the official or common understanding of the poverty line is significantly higher in developed countries than in developing countries. The common international poverty line has in the past been roughly $1 a day. In 2008, the World Bank came out with a revised figure of $1.25 at 2005 purchasing-power parity (PPP). Determining the poverty line is usually done by finding the total cost of all the essential resources that an average human adult consumes in one year. Individual factors are often used to account for various circumstances, such as whether one is a parent, elderly, a child, married, etc. The poverty threshold may be adjusted annually. Below Poverty Line is an economic benchmark and poverty threshold used by the government of India to indicate economic disadvantage and to identify individuals and households in need of government assistance and aid. It is determined using various parameters which vary from state to state and within states. The present criteria are based on a survey conducted in 2002. Going into a survey due for a decade, Indias central government is undecided on criteria to identify families below poverty line. Poverty in India The problem of poverty and unemployment is considered as the biggest  challenge to development planning in India. High poverty levels are synonymous with poor quality of life, deprivation, malnutrition, illiteracy and low human resource development. The slogan of poverty eradication has been adopted by all political parties in one form or another and there is a national agreement for the goal of poverty alleviation. The national consensus on poverty alleviation provided the necessary condition for launching various schemes and programmes aimed at achieving this objective. But the persistence of poverty during all these years suggests that the national consensus on objectives did not and could not provide sufficient conditions for poverty alleviation. The starting point for estimating the number of households below the poverty line is a nutritional requirement per person per day at some base point. There is a debate on the minimum calorie requirement, and whether it should be the same for all parts of the country. Most acceptable figures are 2,400 calories per person per day in rural areas, and 2,200 calories per person per day in urban areas. The next step is to translate the nutrient requirement into monetary terms. The expenditure level of households which are able to spend the requisite amount to obtain the desired calories serves as the cut-off point, or the poverty line. To adjust the poverty line over a period of time, price variations have to be considered and an appropriate price deflator has to be selected. The problem arises in deciding upon such a deflator. Thus, the following elements mainly affect the magnitude of the poverty ratio: (i) the nutrition norm (translated into monetary terms); (ii) price deflator used to update the poverty line; and (iii) pro rata adjustment in the number of households in different expenditure classes to determine the number of households below and above the poverty line. Different assumptions and methods are used for these three purposes, which accounts for the different estimates provided by scholars. The Planning Commission has been estimating the incidence of poverty at the national and state level using the methodology contained in the report of the Expert Group on Estimation of Proportion and Number of Poor (Lakdawala Committee) and applying it to consumption expenditure data from the large sample surveys on consumer expenditure conducted by the NSSO (National Sample Survey Organisation) at an interval of approximately five years. Estimates of Poverty (Per cent) Year All India Rural Urban All India Poverty Ratio Rural Poverty Ratio Urban Poverty Ratio Number (per cent) Number (per cent) Number (per cent) (Million) (Million) (Million) 1973-74 321 54.9 261 56.4 60 49.0 1977-78 329 51.3 264 53.1 65 45.2 1983 323 44.5 252 45.7 71 40.8 1987-88 307 38.9 232 39.1 75 38.2 1993-94 320 36.0 244 37.3 76 32.4 1999-2000 260 26.1 193 27.1 67 23.6 2004-05 239 21.8 170 21.8 68 21.7 Problems caused due to poverty Human poverty measures suggest even worse outcomes than for income poverty in India. India has never been a good performer in human development terms, despite the much better indicators in some states, particularly Kerala. Overall, both health and education indicators have lagged well below those in other countries at similar levels of development and with similar per capita income. But food poverty has been of particular concern. Recent studies have shown alarming levels of hunger, especially in certain states of India. Studies by IFPRI and ISHI quoted in Banerjee (2008) suggest that most states in India rank somewhere among the poor Sub-Saharan countries:  Punjab, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Assam have a „serious‟ level of hunger; Madhya Pradesh fares worst in the „extremely alarming‟ cohort of hunger. All the other states record an „alarming‟ level of hunger, which is also the general ranking for the whole country. More appallingly, the situation appears to have worsened in the recent period of rapid economic growth. National Sample Surveys shows declining per capita calorie consumption, not only among the entire population, but also among the bottom quartiles, for which consumption was already very inadequate by international standards. Other indicators of both nutrition and health are also extreme. The latest National Family Health Survey for 2005–06 shows that the proportion of underweight children below the age of five years was 45.6 per cent in rural India and 32.7 per cent in urban India, indicating hardly any change from the previous survey undertaken eight years previously. More than one-third of the rural population was also underweight. Anaemia often a good indicator of nutritional deprivation was also widespread: 79.2 per cent of children aged 12–23 months and 56.2 per cent of ever-married women between 15 and 59 years were found to be anaemic. Conclusion Poverty Alleviation Programmes The poverty alleviation programme have been broadly classified into self-employment programmes, wage employment programmes, food safety programme and social security programmes. The focus is on the central government schemes only. It is not possible to map the special programmes of all the states. It must be noted here that some of the progressive states have added additional components or given further subsidy to enhance the benefits of the central schemes. For example, in the highly subsidized public distribution system of Andhra Pradesh, the BPL card holders were provided rice at Rs. 2 per kg. Self-employment programmes: This programme was started in 1970s in rural areas of the country in the name of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) to increase the source of income of small farmers and landless labourers. The beneficiaries were given subsidized credit, training, and infrastructure, so that they could find new sources of  earning. In this scheme, agricultural labourers and small farmers received new skills to involve in vocations other than cultivating land. They included fishery, animal husbandry, and forestry. In the 1980s, this scheme was extended to schedule castes and tribes, women and rural artisans. Wage employment programmes: The main purpose of the wage employment programmes is to provide a livelihood during the lean agricultural season as well as during drought and floods. Under these programmes, villagers worked to improve the village infrastructure such as deepening the village ponds, constructing village schools and improving the rural roads. Thus the programmes not only provided employment to the villagers but also improved village infrastructure and created village public assets. A positive fall out of this programme is that it created higher demand for village labour, thereby pushing up the wage of the labourer in the villages. Food security programmes: Meeting the very basic need of access to food is a major challenge to the government in the post-economic reform era. Those who are below poverty line are faced with the problem of meeting this very basic need. Starvation and hunger have been reported in different parts of the country, even in economically advanced states like Maharashtra. There is malnutrition in all age groups, especially among children. Problem of low birth weight due to under nutrition of mother during pregnancy and underweight of children are rampant in the country. The purchasing power of certain section of the society is so low that they cannot access food at the market price. They need the safety net of food subsidy. In this context, public distribution system or PDS assumes importance. Social security programmes: Social security programmes are meant for those who are at the bottom of the BPL facing destitution and desertion. The central government has launched the National Social Assistance Programme or NSAP in August 1995. Under NSAP, there are three schemes. The first one is the National Old Age Pension Scheme or NOAPS. A pension amount of Rs. 75 per month is given to those who are above the age of 65 years and are destitute without any regular source of income or support from any family members or relatives. Though it is a very useful scheme for the elderly destitute, the coverage of the programme was not satisfactory. In the year 1999-2000, 8.71 million eligible elderly were identified, but the scheme could reach out to only 5 million beneficiaries. It was found that the benefits really reached the  poor and the leakage rate was found to be low.

Impact of National Culture on HRM practices

Impact of National Culture on HRM practices According to Brewster (1995, cited by Wilton, 2010), an organisations Human Resource Management policies are dictated by international, national, and organisational constraints. The impact of such limitations, particularly in the midst of an increasingly globalised society, is of particular importance with the continued growth of Multinational Corporations (MNCs). With business extending across regional, national and international boundaries, now characterized by heightened permeability, adaptations in HRM practices are necessary to account for the variations apparent between nations. As reiterated by Schuler (1998), with MNCs competing in a global marketplace, it has become increasingly important to recognise the significance of the admonition When in Rome, do as the Romans do. Including both institutional (hard) and cultural (soft) discrepancies, MNCs must not only seek to understand the social framework embedded in foreign cultures, but must develop a means to overcome the impedim ents associated with it to insure the success of the corporations subsidiaries abroad. Research illustrates that MNCs often attempt to transfer existing HRM practices to their foreign subsidiaries, however, in the midst of significant cultural gaps; such methods are correlated with high failure rates(Morris et al, 2009; Tayeb, 2005). As national culture is engraved into the skeletal framework of a society, and hence, its organisations, an approach that adapts to the local environment and established social norms, is of pivotal importance (Newman et al, 1996; Morris et al, 2009; Tayeb, 2005). National Culture: A Brief Overview Despite the controversies apparent in its definition, there is wide consensus that national culture encompasses a cornucopia of shared assumptions, norms, values, and beliefs that are embedded into the very core of society (Wilton, 2010; McSweeney, 2002; Maih et al, 2007). A system of values, national culture is perceived as collective programming of the human mind, which, in turn, directly influences the behavioural manifestations of a society within the environment and the group itself (Sackmann, 1992). As reiterated by Schein (1985, cited by Wilton, 2010), national culture is a means of overcoming the universal obstacles within society, that of external adaptation and internal integration. It is a thread that intertwines the heart of a nation with the essence of each individual, community and organisation a thread that stitches an otherwise fragmented society into a tapestry of commonality. As a nations human and institutional foundations are the fruit of its cultural roots, nati onal culture has a significant impact on business operations within MNCs, particularly in regards to the soft aspects of organisations, such as HRM policies. As emphasized by Hickson and Pugh (1995, cited by McSweeney, 2002), a nations culture has a broad spectrum of influence, shaping every thought, every decision, every action, every organisation. Conceptualising National Culture The values embodied by the vast array of cultures worldwide are highly diverse, and so, with business operations no longer constrained by geographical boundaries, MNCs must acknowledge this diversity and its subsequent implications for management (Miah et al, 2007; Newman et al, 1996). While the permeability of global barriers is widely acknowledged, the transferability of HRM practices from the country of origin to those of the subsidiaries is fraught with difficulties, and so, the implications of culture for corporations, as emphasized by Hofstedes model of national cultural differences, are indispensible for MNC management (McSweeney, 2002). Based on research conducted at IBM and its foreign subsidiaries, Hofstede concluded that differences between the values, norms and beliefs of national cultures could be categorized into four dimensions. Despite significant criticism in regards to methodology and obsolescence of data(McSweeney, 2002), the cultural differences apparent in Hofste des model may have implications for an organisations HRM policies in terms of the leadership style, importance of regulations and whether compensation should be linked to individual performance or seniority (Leat et al, 2007). Table 1: Hofstedes Model of Cultural Differences (Adapted from Wilton, 2010) Hofstedes Dimensions of National Culture Cultural Dimension Significance Power Distance A reflection of the acceptability of the social inequality that underpins the functioning of all societies, this dimension indicates the extent to which unequal power distribution is accepted within nations. While in high power societies, inequality is largely accepted, giving rise to autocratic management practices, low power societies are characterized by a desire for equality, stronger interpersonal relationships and heightened employee involvement Uncertainty Avoidance A reflection of the extent to which uncertainty and unpredictability are accepted in a society. In societies with high uncertainty avoidance, the creation of a sense of security and long term predictability is the central focus. On the other hand, in societies with low uncertainty avoidance, unpredictability and risk taking is encouraged. Hence, the importance of regulatory procedures is of less importance. Individualism vs. Collectivism A reflection of the degree to which self identity is reliant on individual or group characteristics. While in individualist societies, individual responsibility, initiative and concern predominates, collectivist societies are characterized by loyalty and concern for a much wider social network. Such societies are hence, more reliant on the organisation, community and country. Masculinity vs. Femininity A reflection of the significance of social differentiation between genders within a society as well as the degree to which traditional male orientations are emphasized over those linked with females. Masculine societies are characterized by ambition with success linked to the acquisition of material possessions. In feminine societies, however, interpersonal harmony is core, and so, quality of life, consideration for the environment and emotional satisfaction is fundamental 2 A noteworthy comparison dominating current HRM literature is that of the individualistic Anglo-Saxon countries and the collectivist Asian countries (Rowley et al, 2002). From the early 1960s, East Asia has been regarded as having one of the most rapidly developing economic environments in the world (Harzing et al, 2004). As a result of such rapid development, MNCs from Anglo Saxon countries, namely the USA, have developed operations in the likes of Japan, China and Taiwan. However, the development of appropriate HRM practices within their respective foreign subsidiaries has been fraught with difficulties, largely as a result of the differences in cultural parameters (Ralston et al, 1997). Values, norms and beliefs in Asian countries are deeply rooted in tradition and the notion workplace is family (Ralston et al, 1997). As such countries are a highly collectivist culture, characterised by high power distance high uncertainty avoidance, HRM policies developed by the USA which, accord ing to Hofstede, are markedly different would be ineffective without contextualisation (Rowley et al, 2002). Hence, as reiterated by Schuler et al (1998), congruence between culture and management practices is of pivotal importance as such an approach (1) demonstrates cultural awareness (2) intertwines policy with ingrained behavioural patterns and (3) is correlated with heightened financial performance . While institutionalists argue that institutional systems, such as the macro-economy, governance and legislation, are the main determinants of HRM policy differences(Leat et al, 2007; (Rowley et al, 2002), research findings derived from studies regarding the effect of national culture on HRM practices in Asian countries (Miah et al, 2007; Sparrow et al, 1998), the Middle East (Leat et al, 2007), Europe ( Newman et al, 1996) and North America (Rosenzweig et al, 1994; Schuler et al, 1998) suggest quite the contrary. Such notions are further supported by Budhwar(2000, cited in Leat et al, 2007), whom asserts that while management practice may be influenced by culture free institutional factors , HRM practices are determined largely by those which are culture bound. National Context: Implications for HRM National culture is engraved into the skeletal framework of a society, and so, as reiterated by Rosenzweig and Nohria (1994, cited in Leat et al, 2007), HRM is both historically and socially embedded and so, it is the area of management most susceptible to cultural differences. National culture, therefore, influences numerous facets of a corporations HRM policies, including resource administration, performance appraisal, strategic decision-making, leadership style, provision of developmental opportunities, and the management of employee relations (Tayeb, 2005). Reinforced by Sparrow et al (1998), HRM policies and practices in any given country are cultural artefacts a reflection of the cultures values and norms in which all organizations are embedded. 3 While research illustrates that various MNCs have opted for the transferral of established practices from the country of origin to that of the host countries (Morris et al, 2009), the lack of contextualisation accounts for the limited acceptance (Newman et al, 1996; Leat et al, 2007). As echoed by Newman (1996) and Miah (2007), the notion of one size fits all is no longer relevant, and so, contextualisation of management practices is vital. According to Nohria et al (1994), the degree to which a MNC differentiates its HRM policy to fit the cultural context of its affiliates is directly correlated with heightened performance of the firm. Furthermore, HRM policies that are consistent with a nations culture have been manifested in heightened employee motivation, self efficacy and improved organisational performance (Newman, 1996). Therefore, the admonition when in Rome, do as the Romans do, appears to be applicable where international HRM practices are concerned. As congruence between the external environment and internal strategy is vital, a misfit between national culture and HRM policies will cause rifts in the organisations foundations, whereby even the most seemingly insignificant crevice will impact the effectiveness of the business (Gerhart, 2008). Hence, in order for Multinational corporations to be competitive on a global scale: it is crucial that they recognize these relationships and adjust their compensation practices to the cultural specifics of a particular host country (Schuler et al, 1998, p. 161) Multinational Corporations and HRM policy 4As highlighted by Taylor et al, 1996, HRM policy orientation, defined as the general philosophy adopted by MNCs within their respective subsidiaries, must be geared towards addressing the tension between the dual imperatives of global integration (convergence) and local responsiveness (divergence)(Edwards et al, 2005). Based on research from Rosenzweig et al (1994), three generic HRM policy orientations may be adopted by MNCs within their foreign affiliates: Adaptive, Exportive and Integrative, which if often dependent on the stage of international corporate evolution (refer to table 2). Based on this typology, which links to that developed by Perlmutter in 1969, multinational corporations management practices within overseas subsidiaries could mirror that of the parent company (ethnocentric), could resemble local practices (polycentric) or could seek idle ground between integration and differentiation(geocentric) (Morris et al, 2009). While early convergence theorists argue for the adoption of an exportive strategy based on the existence of universal truths, differences between national cultures in todays society are deeply rooted, and so, adaptation to local practices is of pivotal importance (Rowley et al, 2002). As argued by Kristensen and Zeitlin (2001, cited in Edwards et al, 2005), Thus, it is arguable that in the midst of increasing globalisation, whereby the idea of readily transferable best practice is no longer relevant, an adaptive or integrative HRM orientation strategy is more applicable. The central issue for MNCs is not to determine the most effective HRM policy per se, but to identify the best fit between the firms external environment, its overall strategy and its HRM policy (Taylor et al, 1996, p.961). Table 2: MNC Human Resource Management Policies (Adapted from Taylor et al, 1996) Adaptive Exportive Integrative The Polycentric approach The Ethnocentric approach The Geocentric approach HRM policy that mirrors the local environment / culture Wholesale transfer of HRM policy from the parent company to the foreign subsidiaries HRM policy that integrates the adaptive and exportive approaches Low internal consistency within the MNC parent company and affiliates and high external consistency with the nation High internal consistency within the MNCs and affiliates and low external consistency with the local environment High internal consistency and moderate external consistency Differentiation is emphasized whereby HRM policies reflect existing local practices High integration whereby HRM policies are replicated in an MNCs foreign subsidiaries Combines differentiation with integration strategy Minimal transfer of HRM philosophy and policy between the MNC and subsidiaries Complete transfer of HRM practice from the parent MNC to overseas affiliates Multidirectional transfer of policies between the parent company and foreign subsidiaries According to Porter (1986, cited in Taylor et al, 1996), HRM policy orientation is dictated by the international strategy adopted by the MNC multidomestic or global. On a similar note, Nohria et al (1994) make the distinction between firm strategy that pursues differentiated fit and that which strives for universal adoption of shares values. A multidomestic strategy (decentralisation) is often pursued in nations where the local market places high demands on MNCs for policy adaptation (Wilton, 2010; Taylor et al, 1996). As argued by Edwards et al (2005), while multiculturism is the primary argument for differentiation, this pressure is augmented by the need to abide by national legislation, regulations and labour market institutions termed local isomorphic factors. As a result, based on contingency theory, such strategy requires policy differentiation to fit the national conditions of each subsidiary (Nohria et al, 1994). MNCs pursuing a global strategy (centralisation), on the othe r hand, employ a set of shared values and goals to achieve a collective competitive advantage. Such a strategy is, hence, dependent on heightened levels of integration, centralization, coordination and control within the MNC and its respective overseas affiliates (Edwards et al, 2005). As emphasized by Wilton (2010) and Nohria et al (1994), a global strategy seeks to minimise the abyss of differences between national systems, placing emphasis on the importance of policy integration and mutual interdependence at an organizational level. 5 MNCs that adopt a multidomestic strategy, and hence are characterized by heightened independence and localization, are likely to pursue an adaptive HRM orientation (Brock et al, 2007). In MNCs geared towards the pursuance of a global strategy, however, an integrative approach to HRM policy is a more viable option. As noted by Taylor et al (1996), corporations that pursue a global strategy require higher levels of integration and internal consistency between the MNC and its respective foreign subsidiaries. However, as Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989, cited in Taylor et al, 1996, p.968) argued, MNCs competing in an increasingly globalised marketplace must not only internationally integrated but locally responsive, and so, in spite of the trend toward internal convergence (ethnocentric), discrepancies between national cultures call for differentiation. Echoed by Rowley et al (2002), while international trade and finance pressure firms to standardise management policy, the local customs and c ulture embedded in the fabric of the nation act as barriers to convergence (geocentric). As highlighted in the study conducted by Nohria et al (1994), the performance of MNCs that adopted an integrative policy orientation (high degree of differentiated fit and shared values) was significantly higher than other firms in the sample of 66 MNCs in 19 different countries. These results are consistent with the findings of Brock et al (2007), whom notes that MNCs that pursue a geocentric approach have higher sales, profit margins and significantly better market shares. Nevertheless, numerous authors acknowledge that while an integrative policy is most appropriate, few firms adopt such practice, often opting instead for an exportive HRM orientation (Taylor et al, 1996; Rowley et al, 2002; Harzing et al, 2004). While the wholesale transplant of the HRM system (Edwards et al, 2005, p. 8) will heighten integration among the MNC units and ensure the continuity of firm ethos, it fails to acknowl edge both cultural and institutional barriers embedded into societies (Morris et al, 2009). USA and Japan: A Case Study 6In todays society, foreign affiliates are the gladiators of the Coliseum that is the modern globalised environment (Pudelko et al, 2007). Hence, in the context of the USA and Japan, HRM policy must attempt to address the conflict between global integration and Local responsiveness (Brock et al, 2007). While American firms initially believed in the notion of one size fits all, which led to the transfer of policies abroad, low success rates by companies such as EBay within an Asian context (refer to table 3) provides evidence to the contrary(Morris et al, 2009). According to Paul Schwamm, an entrepreneur based in Tokyo, EBays lack of success in Japan is attributed largely to their lack of consideration of national culture differences. Instead of adapting to satisfy local needs, EBay attempted to manipulate consumers to fit the companys American centric model (Lane, 2007). Furthermore, as echoed by Ferner (1994), where American firms have integrated a degree of Japanese HRM practice i nto that of their own, they have only done so in a piecemeal fashion. In Japan, an ethnically and religiously homogenous society with deep rooted nationalism, however, such practices are insufficient (Ralston et al, 1997). Table 3: Comparison between Japan and the USA (Adapted from Morris et al, 2002 and Wilton, 2010) Hofstedes Dimensions United States Japan Power Distance Low Medium high Uncertainty Avoidance Low medium High Individualism High Medium Low Masculinity High Medium As the conflict between western and eastern values, norms and beliefs provide a basis for policy differentiation; the adaptation of HRM policies to account for national discrepancies paves the road to organisational success, as can be seen in companies such as IBM, Canon, Sony, and Matsushita (Pudelko et al, 2007). Comparing subsidiaries of US firms in Japan and vice versa, those which have, to a certain extent, adapted practices to the national context (culture and institutional factors), experienced improved efficacy, commitment, employee satisfaction and higher performance (Ferner, 1994; Morris et al, 2009). Interestingly, however, Pudelko et al (2007) notes that while an integrative HRM orientation is apparent in numerous American and Japanese success stories, Japanese subsidiaries in the US are more willing to adopt local practices than their American counterparts are within Japan. This suggests that, while contextualisation is vital, MNCs within both Japan and the USA may still link the American HRM model as a code of best practice (Pudelko et al, 2007). While Japanese MNCs, such as Nissan, Renault, Matsushita and Hitachi are moving away from traditional practices and are becoming increasingly Americanized, traditional Japanese systems are still deeply rooted in various areas of the nation, and so, a degree of contextualisation by American firms is still paramount. Conclusion 7According to Brock et al (2007, p.354), MNC subsidiaries are faced with balancing dual roles: as cogs in the wheels of their parent organisations, and as competitors in local markets. With increasing levels of globalisation, internationalisation of business, and heightened competition, consideration of the viability of HRM policies within different national contexts is of growing importance. National culture is engraved into the skeletal framework of a society, and so, it has significant bearing on business operations within MNCs and their respective subsidiaries, particularly in regards to the soft aspects of organisations such as HRM policies, practices and philosophies. While research highlights trends towards global convergence of policies within MNCs and their respective foreign subsidiaries, discrepancies between national cultures and the norms, beliefs and values intertwined with their roots, call for differentiation. It is this need to bridge the concepts of integration and differentiation that justifies the adoption of an integrative HRM policy orientation in the midst of both a multidomestic and global management strategy. Hence, in order for MNCs to be successful, they need to adapt HRM policies to account for cultural diversity while maintaining the broader set of practices that reflect the firm itself.

Meeting Individual Needs in Lessons for Children

Meeting Individual Needs in Lessons for Children Assessment 1 When planning lessons and activities for children we must ensure that all individual needs are met. To be able to do this firstly we need to look at factors which may affect their development or needs. Affecting factors may include stress, disability, illness, birth defects or home environment. It will be the role of the child’s key worker to evaluate individual children and assess their needs and help them overcome or resolve any issues which may be affecting their development or growth. These observations are best done during the child’s free time when they are more relaxed and not feeling pressured. We can learn a lot when a child is doing a task they enjoy or are playing. Once our observations have been made we can use our findings to plan future activities. Individual observations and assessments need to be made for each child as development varies in all children. Activities need to be based on what the child is able to achieve and must not be too hard for them to complete as they will feel pressured and it may affect their confidence. We must also make sure that the activities are not too easy as the child will not feel fully stimulated and may become bored. Using activities based around a child’s likes or interests is a great way to get them interested and engaged. Differentiation must also be used when trying to meet individual needs, including specialist equipment when needed, visual aids, adult interaction and learning aids when conducting a group activity will ensure that all of the children can be included. Using differentiation will also ensure that all children can meet the overall aim of the group task despite this being done in different ways. When planning for individual needs of children we must make sure we include the practice of equal opportunities. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child state ‘All children have the right to have their views and opinions listened to.’ By ensuring we take this into account we can work with the child and plan activities based on things they enjoy and include their own culture or beliefs. The individual schools ‘Equal Opportunities Policy’ must also be read and followed to make sure all children and their families feel included, it will also help the children to refine their own identities. If we follow all of the above plans and ensure that each child is individually assessed then we can make sure that they are reaching all of their goals and aims and are fully happy and stimulated in the tasks that they are undertaking, this will also aid the development and growth of the child both individually and within a group. As well as making sure that all children’s individual needs are met we must also make sure that we are not discriminating against any of our children. Discrimination occurs when an individual or group of children are treated less favourably than others. This may be due to gender, disabilities, faith, race, culture, physical appearance or even social class. If a child does feel discriminated against then this could result in them becoming withdrawn and it may cause development delays. According to the Development Matters in the Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) ‘ children have a right, spelled out in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of a child, to provisions which enable them to develop their personalities, talents and abilities irrespective of ethnicity, culture or religion, home language, family background, learning difficulties, disability or gender.’ (EYFS) There are several ways in which we can make sure that we are including all children in all of our activities and the first step in doing this would be to read through the Equality Act 2010. This act protects children from discrimination right through their school life up to the age of eighteen. The Act states ‘.it is unlawful for a school to discriminate against a pupil or prospective pupil by treating them less favourably’ (Equality Act 2010). This Act replaced nine major Acts of Parliament and almost one hundred sets of regulations. The Act covers all schools in England and Wales and schools managed by Education Authorities in Scotland. Whilst reading through the Act we learn a lot more about how equality can be given in schools and a more defined description as to what counts as equality. As well as making ourselves knowledgeable in this Act there are also several things that we can introduce into the school and classroom setting. Welcome signs in a variety of languages and not just English would be a great idea as it shows before entering the school that all nationalities are welcome. The learning of spoken greetings for different nationalities would also make the school and staff come across as more friendly and approachable. Different cultures and faiths celebrate all different festivals and celebrations throughout the year and by doing entire class projects on these we would not only be benefiting the individual students from the religions but we would also be educating the whole class. The inclusion of toys and games from around the world is another good way to teach about different ways of life. We must also make sure when planning lessons and activities that we include topics which don’t just discuss our own beliefs and preferences as this too would be portrayed as being prejudice to those students whose beliefs were different. According to Albert Bandura ‘behaviour is learned from the environment through the process of observational learning.’ (Albert Bandura 1977). Therefore if we as key workers are seen to be showing and exploring new and different cultures and ways of playing then it will also encourage the children to explore these too. The inclusion of disabled children must also be considered when planning and we must make sure that the correct provisions are in place, such as ramps for wheelchair users and items such as large print cards and sheets for those visually impaired children, visual aids and picture cards must also be available for those children with non verbal communication. If we can follow the guidelines which our individual schools have as well as the Equality Act 2010, common sense too, then we should be knowledgeable in the planning of our lessons and activities to ensure all children are included at all times. All activity planning must be done to ensure all of the individual needs of the children are met. To be able to do this correctly we firstly need to look at the ages of the children we are working with. The ages will fall into the categories of, birth – 12 months, 12-24 months, 24-36 months and 36-60 months. Once we have identified the correct age bracket we can think about our activities, whilst we are doing this we must also ensure that we are giving choices to the children as this will help with their decision making and confidence. For the birth-12 month age where the child is not mobile, placing a selection of toys within their reach is the best solution. For 12-24 months when the children are starting to walk and talk we can place different games and tasks around the setting and communicate with them and give them a choice of what they want to do. Again this can be used for the following 2 age brackets but we can expand on it by asking them to choose, unpack and tidy away their own activities as this will stretch them and promote more independence. Whilst we do have these age brackets as a guideline we must remember that children will develop at their own pace and may not always fall into the set guidelines. Therefore we must assess each individual child and ensure that they are given suitable tasks with they will be able to complete either independently or with a little guidance and help. The child must never feel overwhelmed by the task or activity as this will affect their confidence. We could also again use differentiation for this. Communication will form a large part in ensuring individual needs are met as we can speak to the children and ask if they are enjoying what they are doing and also finding out what their likes and dislikes are will help when planning future activities. Using communication to aid our planning will also benefit any disabled children as we will be able to discuss with them ways which they feel we could make activities easier and more enjoyable for them so their individual needs are also met. It is of paramount importance that we fully meet the individual needs of the children so that they can gain further knowledge and skills which will help them grow and develop. Within early year’s settings we must make sure that we promote the children’s physical and emotional well being, there are several ways that this can be done. Firstly we need to look at safety, not just the part of keeping the child safe and away from danger but making them feel safe in their new environment and with being separated from their parents. The child’s key worker will be in charge of this. The key worker will have to build a good and trusting relationship with the child so they feel safe in their care. Working with parents on this would be very beneficial in making the transition and separation easier. Finding out likes and dislikes of a child will also help with getting to know them as individuals and help build up a good relationship. Safety must also cover keeping the child safe within the setting and away from harm. The key worker will need to ensure all age appropriate toys and games are used at all times to reduce problems such as choking hazards. When we look at the physical wellbeing of the early year’s children we must also look at the key worker to child ratio to make sure the child is getting the correct amount of care. Whilst the children are under 24 months we must make sure that the ratio is one key worker to three children, this is due to them having no sense of danger and requiring extra care and watching. As the children get older and more mobile the ratio reduces, at 24-36 months there is only one key worker required for four children, this is because the children are becoming more independent. At 36-60 months the children are much more independent and are aware of danger and hazards. Emotional wellbeing can be promoted in these early years in different ways. One of the biggest things we can do is to allow the child to make choices and decisions for themselves. Using a selection of games and letting them pick their own is a great way to do this, also allowing a choice when it comes to snack time is beneficial as it promotes independence and decision making skills which they will need in later life. We must also give the children the right to say ‘no’ to certain things as this will empower them and enable them to become more resilient individuals. Other ways we can promote the physical and emotional well being of all children include introducing safety lessons and talks. Lessons such as kitchen and bathroom safety are important. Teaching about road safety and ‘stranger danger’ and appropriate and inappropriate ways of touching and talking to each other will also be very beneficial. If we implement and promote all of the above to our early year’s children then they will have a good, strong and solid foundation which will help them greatly in later life. References:- Albert Bandura (1977) Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) (2012) Equality Act (2010) The Children’s Act (1989) The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Children

Political Change in Europe in the Modern Era Essay examples -- World E

European nations gained world dominance between the 15th and 19th centuries through imperialism and industrialization. European nations competed among themselves for international influence, and established by the early 20th century a very intricate balance of power, the disturbance of which ignited World War I in 1914. Over this same period, the power of monarchs within European nations declined as a larger portion of the populace demanded political rights, leading to the democratization of most political systems throughout Western Europe. These shifts in political systems were fed by urbanization, by the rise of class consciousness within the masses, and by the spread of ideas of political and economic philosophers who challenged the power of autocratic government. Russia from Tsarism to Bolshevik Dictatorship Russia lagged behind Western Europe in its economic and political development. In the mid-19th century, Russia remained a feudal society with very little industrialization or urbanization, whose tsar had absolute power. Serfs, peasants who were bound to landowners and had no political rights, comprised the vast majority of the population. Tsar Alexander II (1855-1881) initiated an Age of Reform that he hoped would modernize Russia while maintaining the absolute power of the tsar. In 1861 Alexander II emancipated the serfs, on the grounds that â€Å"it is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait until the serfs begin to liberate themselves from below.† This act put into place a complicated system by which the peasants acquired a â€Å"temporary obligation† to the landlord that could drag on for years, and had to pay to purchase land that they had considered their own and that was often much smaller than the am... ... of the tsar in the late 19th century until the establishment of the Bolshevik dictatorship in October 1917. The moderate pro-monarchist factions (â€Å"whites†) and the Bolsheviks (â€Å"reds,† renamed the Russian Communist Party in 1918) engaged in a Civil War until 1922, by which time the RCP had defeated the monarchists and reclaimed the border nations that had been part of the Tsar’s empire, with the exception of Poland, Finland, and the Balkan states. With these victories the RCP established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), which became a powerful contender in world affairs under Stalin’s rule (1924-1953). The ideological and practical disconnect between Russian Communism and Western Democracy and the alliances of World War II were the foundations of the Cold War rivalry between the world’s two superpowers in the 20th century, the USSR and the USA.

Decentering the Self in the Technological Age Essay -- Communication I

Decentering the Self in the Technological Age In a beautiful park, at the gazebo, stand my two friends, Avatar and Lewia. The wizard is performing the ceremony, and all is going very well. After many hours of intimate chat and romantic evenings together, today Avatar and Lewia are to be married - on the internet. This is the height of immersion to MUDlife. Life on the internet is affecting more people than many of us like to admit. I am interested in discussing the reasons for and repercussions of this sort of immersion. The above description actually did occur, several years ago. It was around the time of the first real explosion of the world wide web, when the internet was reserved for "computer geeks" like myself. The internet offers hundreds of "virtual spaces" called MUDs for "Multi User Domain". Within these MUDs, users create characters for themselves and virtual worlds for their characters. Interaction is purely text-based, with few rules. The worlds are controlled by "wizards", users who have the power to "toad" or delete characters that are abusive or unruly in some other way. My (real life) friend and his girlfriend used to frequent "The Resort", a MUD for general discussion that has since been closed. My personal interest was quite limited, but I had to attend the cyber-ceremony out of respect. My internet personality, or i-dentity, was, after all, BestManChris. Inspired by a similar net-event described in Sherry Turkle's Life On The Screen, I have recently reflected on the reper cussions of that net-wedding. For people as young as we were, twelve years old, the internet and chat rooms are an escape from the control of parents and teachers; they were a chance to be more "grown up" than real life ... ...he commonly held view that communication will become increasingly personal as technology advances is challenged by the popularity of IRC as a new form of communication. People form virtual communities with loose social structure and rules in which the residents all have something in common, whether it is a wedding ceremony, hobby, or a sexual interest. The growth in the number of IRC users is too large to be ignored, and I think it is going to be central to the recreation of communities as postmodern gathering places and the continued decentering of self as electronic communication becomes more prevalent in the years to come. Works Cited Reid, Elizabeth M. Electropolis: Communication and Community On Internet Relay Chat University of Melbourne, 1991. Turkle, Sherry. Life On The Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet New York: Touchstone, 1997.

Nuclear Waste Management position at Ontario

As a second year student at the University of Toronto, majoring in Environmental Science, I am excited to be applying to the Ontario Power Generation. This is an excellent opportunity to apply my knowledge and skills while gaining practical work experience and further understanding the science behind it. I believe that I would be a great fit given my background, thirst for experience, and never-ending enthusiasm, and I would appreciate the opportunity to contribute this company. Throughout my schooling, as a science student, I have had a great deal of practice in the raw technical skills needed in data management and handing dangerous materials. Laboratories hold a strict code of conduct for safety procedures, and expect quick and efficient work with little error. This has given me acute attention to detail, even with a time limit. My time spent in laboratories has also forced me to gain good understanding of Microsoft office suite and statistics, as many of the reports require manipulation and interpretation of mass amounts of data. Cooperation is also a necessary skill I have perfected in laboratories, as many are performed in pairs; however I also retain the ability to perform alone effectively, and complete my work independently. Also, as a science student, I have a good background understanding of the concepts behind nuclear waste management. In addition to a chemistry, physics, and the three main principles of concentrate and contain, dilute and disperse, and delay and decay, I also understand cultural perspectives and challenges of this field. Throughout my career I have been heavily involved in the community, which has given me a strong work ethic, and excellent interpersonal skills I own today . In High School, I was a part-time cashier, in a fast-paced environment , and in direct interaction with customers . Through this I developed the professionalism and customer service initiative needed to excel in a service job, as well as acute problem solving skills for everything from computer issues to customer complaints, and an efficient work ethic. Perhaps my favourite, and most rewarding experience, however has been my volunteer time at Habitat for Humanity. It was an opportunity to step outside of my comfort zone , and though the work was difficult at first, I kept with it, and was greatly rewarded . I have since maintained a proactive, hands-on, and enthusiastic attitude in all areas of my life, especially when facing new challenges. Both opportunities have also allowed me to understand, and seek that balance between hard work, and efficiency, while also reaping the benefits of teamwork, and companionship with one’s coworkers. I sincerely believe that my skill set and background would be an asset to Ontario Power Generation, and my enthusiasm and teamwork would fit perfectly in the fabric of this company. Thank you for your time and consideration, and I look forward to meeting you and discussing how I can become a part of the OPG team.

Learning Theory and Behaviorism

Learning Theory and BehaviorismOctober 16, 2012 Wundt’s Structuralism: †¢ Goal was to analyze the structure of conscious experience into its elements and components and their associative relationships. It was a form of metal chemistry †¢ Developed of the technique introspection, which requires trained introspectionists to look inward and describe/analyze the contents of their experience to a stimulus word †¢ Edward Titchner brought structuralism to the U. S. Cornell university listing 1000’s of elements of consciousness William James: †¢ James studied with Wundt, but rejected a static description of the elements of the mind. James thought the mind and consciousness to be adaptive function that envolved just as any other adaptive function †¢ Therefore, proper study of the mind is to relate its characteristics to purposeful, adaptive behavior. †¢ Hence the rise of functionalism. James was professor of psychology at Harvard Principles of Psych ology: †¢ James wrote this Titles were stream of thought, memory, reasoning, emotion, will, effects of experience Edward Thorndike: †¢ In the late 1800s at Harvard, drawing from James and functionalism and also Darwin’s ideas of evolution of species and their adaption to environment, he studied the progress cats made in solving a puzzle by learning a desired that is instrumental in bringing about desired outcome †¢ Notion of stimulus-response (reflexive vs. rational) was already firmly in the thinking of leading philosophers at the time, in the field of education Ivan Pavlov: In 1904, Pavlov received the Nobel prize for his work on the chemistry of digestive juices in saliva †¢ His work with dogs required gathering large amounts of saliva for chemical analyses. Done through a tube surgically implanted in dog’s salivary gland and then simulating salvation with dried meat powder Unconditional†¦. †¢ Dried meat powder is an unconditional stimu lus 9UCS) in that it always triggers the response of salivating. We call the response unconditional response (UCR).Needs no learning †¢ Many pleasure, pain, and emotional responses and tastes and smells are unconditional Psychic Reflex: †¢ Pavlov and associates observed that dogs would often begin salivating before they were harnessed and before the meat powder †¢ Pavlov switched his path of study this psychic reflex †¢ Studies are among the most famous in psychology. Type of learning he describes is known as â€Å"classical condition† or â€Å"glandular conditioning† Conditional†¦. Stimulus in effect becomes a signal that the dog will be harnessed, presented with the meant, and will be salivating. †¢ The dog must perceive this connection. Its meaning and power as a signal depends on its reliability. Its meaning and power are conditional on its place in time and its frequency in the sequence, becoming conditional stimulus (CS). The psychic reflex becomes a Conditional response. Prior to perception of a connection to the UCS, all events are neutral in meaning with respect to UCS.Conditioning involves responding to a CS with a CR in anticipation of the occurrence of the UCS-UCR pair. Learning: †¢ Conditional response (CR) is the learned response to the conditional stimulus (CS) which gained meaning to the extent it anticipates the UCS-UCR pain. The CR is potentially a adaptive response, a preparatory response †¢ The UCS-UCR pair do not re-occur, then the power of the CS to trigger a CR is weakened. The CS no linger bring about the CR-extinction. Higher order conditioning: The CS must occur fairly closely in time to the UCS-UCR pain- interstimulus interval (CS & UCS) †¢ However once a CS has gained the power to anticipate the UCS, other neutral stimuli close in time to the CS will become conditioned. A CS signal the next CS, which signals the next CS and so on until the original CS signals the UCS-UCR pai n-higher order conditioning. Historical context: †¢ The pressure of universal education brought pressures for psychologists and educators to study the processes of learning †¢ Alfred Binet (advocate from France) developed a test to measure abilities so as to place students in the proper grade.Concepts of ‘intelligence’ and IQ soon followed †¢ Darwin’s theory of evolution suggests that as a species of human beings evolved from lower forms of animal life. Though the gap between animals and human life remained wide in terms of language, thought, and civilization, question was just how intelligent are animals, are they closer to humans are intelligent than animals lower †¢ Industrial revolution; post revolutionary Russia and USA saw an ability to take classless societies and make it a brighter and stronger future, training an efficient workforce.John B. Watson: 1878-1958 †¢ Studied animal intelligence. He sought to move psychology more toward the empirical, deterministic physical sciences †¢ Empirical, means of the senses of implying data used in the science is observable, public, and objectively measured. Determinism implies a search for theories of cause and effect, identification of Aristotle’s immediate cause Behaviorists in control: †¢ Reshaping human society in the US and Soviet Union Philosophical behaviorism: belief that consciousness was an epiphenomenon †¢ Methodological behaviors: belief that observable objective measures of behavior are better over introspective self-report Operant Conditioning: †¢ Skinner says the probability of a response to the correct stimulus is more or less equal to that of any other response to other available stimuli. If the response to a stimulus brings about desired consequence, then the sequence of stimulus-response more likely repeated. Trial and error is as en equal probability for all possible responses on Trial 1 Terms: †¢ Reinforcer: sequence o f stimulus-response consequence; makes stronger the bond between the stimulus and the response †¢ Operant or instrumental response: behavior which bring about the consequence †¢ Skinner prefers to understand reinforcement as that which changes the probability of the response to the stimulus Reinforcer vs. Reinforcement: Reinforce is an event, a consequence that follows the response to a stimulus and is perceived to be connected to the response †¢ Reinforcement is a state of being that arises from the act of consuming or enjoying †¢ Positive reinforce is a positive rewarding consequence to response to a stimulus; all is good and you’ll do it again †¢ Negative reinforer is a painful consequence to the response to a stimulus; decreases probability of the response to that stimulus †¢ In negative reinforcement sequence is stimulus, response, negative reinforcerm escape response(which removes negative reinforce) positive reinforce.Total package: negati ve reinforcement. Probability of an escape/avoidance response is increased and the 1st response is decreased. Primary and secondary reinforcer: †¢ Primary: natural; one that does not have to be learned.Satisfy biological needs like hunger, thirst †¢ Secondary: consequence whose value must be learned through experience; come through socialization and subsequent learning †¢ Primary positive reinforcer: satisfies a natural need (food if you’re hungry, water if thirsty) †¢ Primary negative reinforcer: causes physical pain and discomfort (injury, illness) †¢ Secondary positive reinforcer: satisfies social and psychological needs (good grade, smile, kiss) †¢ Secondary negative reinforcer: socially punishing (failing grade, public slander, rejection letter) Classical and instrumental combined: A primary positive reinforcer=unconditional stimulus that follows some behavioral conditional response to conditional stimulus. †¢ Conditional stimulus is a secondary positive reinforcer Contingency: †¢ connection between a stimulus, response, and a consequence. One perceives the stimulus and performs the response expected †¢ extinction: when stimulus no longer elicits a response b/c reinforcer no longer appears †¢ superstition: one perceives a contingency when in fact there is none †¢ helplessness: perceiving no contingency between a stimulus and a response nd any desirable consequence, making no response †¢ fixed ratio: pattern is predictable †¢ variable ratio: pattern is random Resistance to extinction: †¢ skinner defines strength of learning as how resistance the acquired response to a stimulus is to extinction †¢ variable ratio schedule maintains responding far longer than fixed ratio †¢ fixed interval schedule gives reinforcer tot the last response as a certain interval of time elapses Psychological and emotional disorders A behavioral analysis of psychological & emotional disorders inc ludes the assumption that the symptoms (inappropriate behaviors, thoughts, or emotions) are acquired in a learning environment (i. e. not due to genetics or physiological dysfunctions or unconscious conflicts). †¢ Behavior therapy tries to extinguish the inappropriate responses to stimuli & train appropriate responses. Behavioral analysis of a phobia †¢ Phobia = learned, â€Å"acquired fear† o Intense fear or anxiety reaction to an event, classically conditioned by exposure to frightening, threatening, or painful stimulus. Instrumentally conditioned escape/avoidance behavior that takes very few trials, maybe only one trial to learn Obsessive compulsive disorder †¢ Obsessive state = intense drive state, often accompanied by images, thoughts, memories, desires, etc. related to drive state an identity †¢ Compulsive = behavior that corrects for or deals w/ the threat to the driving identity. Ritualized by repetition & success at keeping anxiety at bay. †¢ Compulsive behavior may originate in two ways: o 1.Person once praised for something & now seeks praise to maintain good feeling o 2. Person once punished for something & thus becomes anxious when this event occurs and does whatever to avoid punishment Behavioral analysis of anxiety and conflict †¢ The conflict of drives, stimuli, responses & consequences will result in indecision, inefficiency, & anxiety. Dollard & miller list the following: †¢ An approach-approach conflict: where two mutually exclusive positive consequences follow a response to two similar stimuli.The greater the emotional importance of the choice & the greater the finality (or temporal impact) of the choice, the greater the conflict: o Choosing whom to marry vs. choosing which friend to call o Choosing a book to read vs. choosing a film to watch on a weekend night o Choosing a car/house to buy vs. choosing a brand of frozen pizza to buy in the store †¢ An avoidance-avoidance conflict: where two mu tually exclusive negative consequences follow a response to two similar stimuli. Resolved in a manner similar to approach-approach. Choosing to cope with knee pain or having knee surgery o Choosing to write a paper or study for a test o Choosing any math course †¢ An approach-avoidance conflict: where two aspects of the â€Å"same† stimulus are in contradiction, one positive, one negative. o Enjoying the company of a friend, who also tends to get loud & obnoxious at parties. The conflict arises when the friend asks you to go to the party with her/him. o Contemplating a trip to Europe, but you have a fear of flying Behavioral analysis of anxiety & conflict The tension in approach-avoidance conflict in interpersonal relationships often forces a person to create a â€Å"safe-zone† in which, on the one hand, the person is not so far away from the other such that one needs to approach, but yet, on the other hand, the person is not so close that one needs to avoid the o ther. †¢ Often the zone is defined or verbalized in terms of emotional involvement, interpersonal distance, intimacy, time together, mode of communication, etc. â€Å"were just friends†¦Ã¢â‚¬  meaning not lovers, cousins, or strangers. The safe zone evolves. It is negotiated b/t the two persons in the relationship to their mutual satisfaction, though true mutuality is often difficult to achieve. Also, conditions may change it over time, especially due to factors such as distance, other relationships, new info, etc. Depression †¢ Result of a generalized learned helplessness. †¢ Helplessness learned when most instrumental escape or avoidance responses to a primary or secondary negative reinforce fail to bring about relief through a cessation of the punishment, discomfort.Inactivity/apathy describe lack of instrumental responses; pain, numbness, sadness are the classically conditioned emotional responses. Dissociative disorder †¢ Dissociative disorders, such as dissociative identity disorder (split personality) involves learning a new repertory of behaviors, thoughts, & emotions that are appropriate (and therefore reinforced) in a new environment along side of a previously learned repertory of behaviors, thoughts and emotions that are appropriate in a different prior environment †¢ Prior environment associated w/ punishmentSchizophrenia †¢ double bind theory of schizophrenia: child raised in a home environment of confusing/contradictory messages from at least one volatile, toxic parent. The child’s behavior is not predictably right/good, wrong/bad. The child grows up never sure or relaxed, but stressed and anxious. Child emerges chronic mistrust of his or her ability to behave, think, etc. he/she learns to behave as if disconnected from reality B. F. Skinner †¢ wrote beyond freedom and dignity – we’re already living in a behavioral society.